

	The/at next/ap question/nn is/bez whether/cs board/nn members/nns favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns in/in their/pp$ roles/nns as/cs educational/jj policy-makers/nns ./.
On/in the/at whole/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs they/ppss do/do not/* favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns in/in an/at explicit/jj way/nn ./.
Seldom/rb is/bez there/ex an/at issue/nn in/in which/wdt class/nn lines/nns can/md be/be clearly/rb drawn/vbn ./.
A/at hypothetical/jj issue/nn of/in this/dt sort/nn might/md deal/vb with/in the/at establishment/nn of/in a/at free/jj public/jj junior/jj college/nn in/in a/at community/nn where/wrb there/ex already/rb was/bedz a/at good/jj private/jj college/nn which/wdt served/vbd the/at middle-class/nn youth/nn adequately/rb but/cc was/bedz too/ql expensive/jj for/in working-class/nn youth/nn ./.
In/in situations/nns of/in this/dt sort/nn the/at board/nn generally/rb favors/vbz the/at expansion/nn of/in free/jj education/nn ./.
Campbell/np studied/vbd the/at records/nns of/in 172/cd school/nn board/nn members/nns in/in twelve/cd western/jj cities/nns over/in the/at period/nn of/in 1931/cd -/in 40/cd and/cc found/vbd ``/`` little/ap or/cc no/at relationship/nn between/in certain/ap social/jj and/cc economic/jj factors/nns and/cc school/nn board/nn competence/nn ''/'' ,/, as/cs judged/vbn by/in a/at panel/nn of/in professional/jj educators/nns who/wps studied/vbd the/at voting/vbg records/nns on/in educational/jj issues/nns ./.


	The/at few/ap cases/nns of/in clear/jj favoritism/nn along/in social-class/nn lines/nns are/ber as/ql likely/jj as/cs not/* to/to involve/vb representatives/nns of/in the/at working/vbg class/nn on/in the/at school/nn board/nn who/wps favor/vb some/dti such/jj practice/nn as/cs higher/jjr wages/nns for/in janitors/nns rather/rb than/cs pay/nn increases/nns for/in teachers/nns ,/, and/cc such/jj issues/nns are/ber not/* issues/nns of/in educational/jj policy/nn ./.


	In/in general/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs trustees/nns and/cc board/nn members/nns attempt/vb to/to represent/vb the/at public/jj interest/nn in/in their/pp$ administration/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt is/bez made/vbn easier/jjr by/in the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at dominant/jj values/nns of/in the/at society/nn are/ber middle-class/nn values/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber generally/rb thought/vbn to/to be/be valid/jj for/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.
There/ex have/hv been/ben very/ql few/ap cases/nns of/in explicit/jj conflict/nn of/in interest/nn between/in the/at middle/jj class/nn and/cc any/dti other/ap class/nn in/in the/at field/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ./.
If/cs there/ex were/bed more/ap such/jj cases/nns ,/, it/pps would/md be/be easier/jjr to/to answer/vb the/at question/nn whether/cs the/at policy-makers/nns favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns ./.


	There/ex is/bez currently/rb a/at major/jj controversy/nn of/in public/jj education/nn in/in which/wdt group/nn interests/nns and/cc values/nns are/ber heavily/rb engaged/vbn ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at issue/nn of/in segregated/vbn schools/nns in/in the/at South/nr-tl ./.
In/in this/dt case/nn it/pps is/bez primarily/rb a/at matter/nn of/in conflict/nn of/in racial/jj groups/nns rather/rb than/cs social-class/nn groups/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at white/jj middle/jj and/cc lower/jjr classes/nns are/ber arrayed/vbn against/in the/at Negro/np middle/jj and/cc lower/jjr classes/nns ./.
This/dt conflict/nn may/md be/be resolved/vbn in/in a/at way/nn which/wdt will/md suit/vb white/jj middle-class/nn people/nns better/rbr than/cs it/pps suits/vbz white/jj lower-class/nn people/nns ./.
If/cs this/dt happens/vbz ,/, there/ex may/md be/be some/dti class/nn conflict/nn in/in the/at South/nr-tl ,/, with/in school/nn boards/nns and/cc school/nn teachers/nns taking/vbg the/at middle-class/nn position/nn ./.



The/at-hl educational/jj-hl profession/nn-hl 
The/at members/nns of/in the/at educational/jj profession/nn have/hv a/at major/jj voice/nn in/in the/at determination/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ,/, their/pp$ position/nn being/beg strongest/jjt in/in the/at universities/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber mostly/rb upper-middle-/jj and/cc lower-middle-class/nn people/nns ,/, with/in a/at few/ap in/in the/at upper/jj class/nn ./.
Do/do they/ppss make/vb class-biased/jj decisions/nns ?/. ?/.


	In/in a/at society/nn dominated/vbn by/in middle-class/nn values/nns and/cc working/vbg in/in an/at institution/nn which/wdt transmits/vbz and/cc strengthens/vbz these/dts social/jj values/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs the/at educational/jj profession/nn must/md work/vb for/in the/at values/nns which/wdt are/ber characteristic/jj of/in the/at society/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez no/at problem/nn here/rb ./.
The/at problem/nn arises/vbz ,/, if/cs it/pps does/doz arise/vb ,/, when/wrb the/at educator/nn has/hvz to/to make/vb a/at choice/nn or/cc a/at decision/nn within/in the/at area/nn of/in his/pp$ professional/jj competence/nn ,/, but/cc which/wdt bears/vbz some/dti relation/nn to/in the/at social/jj structure/nn ./.
For/in instance/nn ,/, in/in giving/vbg school/nn grades/nns or/cc in/in making/vbg recommendations/nns for/in the/at award/nn of/in a/at college/nn scholarship/nn ,/, does/doz he/pps consciously/rb or/cc unconsciously/rb favor/vb students/nns of/in one/cd or/cc another/dt social/jj class/nn ?/. ?/.
Again/rb ,/, in/in deciding/vbg on/in the/at content/nn and/cc method/nn of/in his/pp$ teaching/nn ,/, does/doz he/pps favor/vb a/at curriculum/nn which/wdt will/md make/vb his/pp$ students/nns stronger/jjr competitors/nns in/in the/at race/nn for/in higher/jjr economic/jj status/nn ,/, or/cc does/doz he/pps favor/vb a/at curriculum/nn which/wdt strengthens/vbz students/nns in/in other/ap ways/nns ?/. ?/.


	The/at answers/nns to/in questions/nns such/jj as/cs these/dts certainly/rb depend/vb to/in some/dti extent/nn upon/in the/at educator's/nn$ own/jj social-class/nn position/nn and/cc also/rb upon/in his/pp$ social/jj history/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs upon/in his/pp$ personality/nn and/cc what/wdt he/pps conceives/vbz his/pp$ mission/nn to/to be/be as/cs an/at educator/nn ./.
In/in a/at set/nn of/in case/nn studies/nns of/in teachers/nns with/in various/ap social-class/nn backgrounds/nns ,/, Wattenberg/np illustrates/vbz a/at variety/nn of/in approaches/nns to/in students/nns and/cc to/in teaching/vbg which/wdt depend/vb upon/in the/at teacher's/nn$ personality/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs on/in his/pp$ social-class/nn background/nn ./.
One/cd upward-mobile/jj teacher/nn may/md be/be a/at hard/jj taskmaster/nn for/in lower-class/nn pupils/nns because/cs she/pps wants/vbz them/ppo to/to develop/vb the/at attitudes/nns and/cc skills/nns that/wps will/md enable/vb them/ppo to/to climb/vb ,/, while/cs another/dt upward-mobile/jj teacher/nn may/md be/be a/at very/ql permissive/jj person/nn with/in lower-class/nn pupils/nns because/cs he/pps knows/vbz their/pp$ disadvantages/nns and/cc deprivations/nns at/in home/nn ,/, and/cc he/pps hopes/vbz to/to encourage/vb them/ppo by/in friendly/jj treatment/nn ./.


	One/cd social-class/nn factor/nn which/wdt plays/vbz a/at large/jj part/nn in/in educational/jj policy/nn today/nr is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs a/at great/ql many/ap school/nn and/cc college/nn teachers/nns are/ber upward/rb mobile/jj from/in urban/jj lower-class/nn and/cc lower-middle-class/nn families/nns ./.
Their/pp$ own/jj experience/nn in/in the/at social/jj system/nn influences/vbz their/pp$ work/nn and/cc attitudes/nns as/cs teachers/nns ./.
While/cs this/dt influence/nn is/bez a/at complex/jj matter/nn ,/, depending/in upon/in personality/nn factors/nns in/in the/at individual/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs upon/in his/pp$ social-class/nn experience/nn ,/, there/ex probably/rb are/ber some/dti general/jj statements/nns about/in social-class/nn background/nn and/cc educational/jj policy/nn that/wps can/md be/be made/vbn with/in a/at fair/jj degree/nn of/in truth/nn ./.


	Teachers/nns who/wps have/hv been/ben upward/rb mobile/jj probably/rb see/vb education/nn as/cs most/ql valuable/jj for/in their/pp$ students/nns if/cs it/pps serves/vbz students/nns as/cs it/pps has/hvz served/vbn them/ppo ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, they/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to favor/vb a/at kind/nn of/in education/nn that/wps has/hvz vocational-advancement/nn value/nn ./.
This/dt does/doz not/* necessarily/rb mean/vb that/cs such/jj teachers/nns will/md favor/vb vocational/jj education/nn ,/, as/cs contrasted/vbn with/in liberal/jj education/nn ,/, but/cc they/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to favor/vb an/at approach/nn to/in liberal/jj education/nn which/wdt has/hvz a/at maximal/jj vocational-advancement/nn value/nn ,/, as/cs against/in a/at kind/nn of/in ``/`` pure/jj ''/'' liberal/jj education/nn that/wps is/bez not/* designed/vbn to/to help/vb people/nns get/vb better/jjr jobs/nns ./.


	There/ex is/bez no/at doubt/nn that/cs higher/jjr education/nn since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, has/hvz moved/vbn away/rb from/in ``/`` pure/jj ''/'' liberal/jj education/nn toward/in greater/jjr emphasis/nn on/in technology/nn and/cc specialization/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber several/ap causes/nns for/in this/dt ,/, one/cd being/beg rapid/jj economic/jj development/nn with/in increasing/vbg numbers/nns of/in of/in middle-class/nn positions/nns requiring/vbg engineering/vbg or/cc scientific/jj training/nn ./.
But/cc another/dt cause/nn may/md lie/vb in/in the/at experience/nn of/in so/ql many/ap new/jj postwar/jj faculty/nn members/nns with/in their/pp$ own/jj use/nn of/in education/nn as/cs a/at means/nn of/in social/jj advancement/nn ./.


	Compared/vbn with/in the/at college/nn and/cc university/nn faculty/nn members/nns of/in the/at period/nn from/in 1900/cd to/in 1930/cd ,/, the/at new/jj postwar/jj faculty/nn members/nns consist/vb of/in more/ap children/nns of/in immigrants/nns and/cc more/ap children/nns of/in urban/jj working-class/nn fathers/nns ./.
Their/pp$ experience/nn is/bez quite/rb in/in contrast/nn with/in that/dt of/in children/nns of/in upper-/jj and/cc upper-middle-class/nn native-born/jj parents/nns ,/, who/wps are/ber more/ql likely/jj to/to regard/vb education/nn as/cs good/jj for/in its/pp$ own/jj sake/nn and/cc to/to discount/vb the/at vocational/jj emphases/nns in/in the/at curriculum/nn ./.



The/at ``/`` public/jj interest/nn ''/'' groups/nns 
Educational/jj policies/nns are/ber formed/vbn by/in several/ap groups/nns who/wps are/ber officially/rb or/cc unofficially/rb appointed/vbn to/to act/vb in/in the/at public/jj interest/nn ./.
Legislators/nns are/ber one/cd such/jj group/nn ,/, and/cc state/nn legislators/nns have/hv major/jj responsibility/nn for/in educational/jj legislation/nn ./.
They/ppss generally/rb vote/vb so/cs as/cs to/to serve/vb their/pp$ own/jj constituency/nn ,/, and/cc if/cs the/at constituency/nn should/md be/be solidly/rb middle/jj class/nn or/cc solidly/rb lower/jjr class/nn ,/, they/ppss might/md be/be expected/vbn to/to vote/vb and/cc work/vb for/in middle-/jj or/cc for/in lower-class/nn interests/nns in/in education/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber relatively/ql few/ap such/jj political/jj constituencies/nns ,/, and/cc ,/, as/cs has/hvz been/ben pointed/vbn out/rp ,/, there/ex is/bez seldom/rb a/at clear-cut/jj distinction/nn between/in the/at educational/jj interests/nns of/in one/cd social/jj class/nn and/cc those/dts of/in another/dt ./.


	Another/dt public/jj interest/nn group/nn is/bez the/at commission/nn of/in laymen/nns or/cc educators/nns which/wdt is/bez appointed/vbn to/to study/vb an/at educational/jj problem/nn and/cc to/to make/vb recommendations/nns ./.
Generally/rb these/dts commissions/nns work/vb earnestly/rb to/to represent/vb the/at interest/nn of/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss conceive/vb it/ppo ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, their/pp$ conclusions/nns and/cc recommendations/nns cannot/md* please/vb everybody/pn ,/, and/cc they/ppss often/rb represent/vb a/at particular/ap economic/jj or/cc political/jj point/nn of/in view/nn ./.
For/in instance/nn ,/, there/ex have/hv been/ben two/cd Presidential/jj-tl Commissions/nns-tl on/in higher/jjr education/nn since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd ./.
President/nn-tl Truman's/np$ Commission/nn-tl on/in-tl Higher/jjr-tl Education/nn-tl tended/vbd to/to take/vb a/at liberal/jj ,/, expansionist/nn position/nn ,/, while/cs President/nn-tl Eisenhower's/np$ Committee/nn-tl on/in-tl Education/nn-tl Beyond/rb-tl the/at-tl High/jj-tl School/nn-tl was/bedz slightly/ql more/ql conservative/jj ./.
Both/abx Commissions/nns-tl consisted/vbd of/in upper-middle-/jj and/cc upper-class/nn people/nns ,/, who/wps attempted/vbd to/to act/vb in/in the/at public/jj interest/nn ./.


	An/at example/nn of/in a/at more/ql definite/jj class/nn bias/nn is/bez noted/vbn in/in proceedings/nns of/in the/at Commission/nn-tl on/in-tl the/at-tl Financing/nn-tl of/in-tl Higher/jjr-tl Education/nn-tl sponsored/vbn by/in the/at Association/nn-tl of/in-tl American/jj Universities/nns-tl and/cc supported/vbn by/in the/at Rockefeller/np-tl Foundation/nn-tl and/cc the/at Carnegie/np-tl Corporation/nn-tl ./.
This/dt Commission/nn-tl recommended/vbd against/in the/at use/nn of/in federal/jj government/nn funds/nns for/in the/at assistance/nn of/in private/jj universities/nns and/cc against/in a/at broad/jj program/nn of/in government-supported/jj scholarships/nns ./.
This/dt might/nn be/be said/vbn to/to be/be an/at upper-/jj or/cc an/at upper-middle-class/nn bias/nn ,/, but/cc the/at Commission/nn-tl published/vbd as/cs one/cd of/in its/pp$ staff/nn studies/nns a/at book/nn by/in Byron/np S./np Hollingshead/np entitled/vbn Who/wps-tl Should/md-tl Go/vb-tl To/in-tl College/nn-tl ?/. ?/.
Which/wdt recommended/vbd a/at federal/jj government/nn scholarship/nn program/nn ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at Commission/nn-tl set/vbd up/rp the/at Council/nn-tl for/in-tl Financial/jj-tl Aid/nn-tl to/in-tl Education/nn-tl as/cs a/at means/nn of/in encouraging/vbg private/jj business/nn to/to increase/vb its/pp$ support/nn of/in private/jj higher/jjr education/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at Commission/nn-tl acted/vbd with/in a/at sense/nn of/in social/jj responsibility/nn within/in the/at area/nn of/in its/pp$ own/jj convictions/nns about/in the/at problem/nn of/in government/nn support/nn to/in private/jj education/nn ./.


	Then/rb there/ex are/ber the/at trustees/nns and/cc officers/nns of/in the/at great/jj educational/jj foundations/nns ,/, who/wps inevitably/rb exert/vb an/at influence/nn on/in educational/jj decisions/nns by/in their/pp$ support/nn or/cc refusal/nn to/to support/vb various/ap educational/jj programs/nns ,/, experiments/nns ,/, and/cc demonstrations/nns ./.
These/dts people/nns are/ber practically/ql always/rb upper-/jj or/cc upper-middle-class/nn persons/nns ,/, who/wps attempt/vb to/to act/vb in/in what/wdt they/ppss regard/vb as/cs the/at interest/nn of/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.


	Finally/rb there/ex are/ber the/at parent/nn organizations/nns and/cc the/at laymen's/nns$ organizations/nns such/jj as/cs the/at National/jj-tl Association/nn-tl of/in-tl Parents/nns-tl and/cc-tl Teachers/nns-tl ,/, and/cc the/at Citizens/nns-tl Committee/nn-tl on/in-tl Public/jj-tl Schools/nns-tl ./.
These/dts have/hv an/at upper-middle-class/nn leadership/nn and/cc a/at middle-class/nn membership/nn ,/, with/in rare/jj exceptions/nns ,/, where/wrb working-class/nn parents/nns are/ber active/jj in/in local/jj P.-T.A./np matters/nns ./.
Like/cs the/at other/ap policy-making/jj groups/nns ,/, these/dts are/ber middle/jj class/nn in/in their/pp$ educational/jj attitudes/nns ,/, and/cc they/ppss attempt/vb to/to act/vb in/in the/at general/jj public/jj interest/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss see/vb it/ppo ./.


	In/in general/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs educational/jj decisions/nns and/cc educational/jj policies/nns are/ber made/vbn by/in people/nns who/wps intend/vb to/to act/vb in/in the/at interests/nns of/in the/at society/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber predominantly/rb middle-/jj and/cc upper-class/nn people/nns ,/, and/cc undoubtedly/rb share/vb the/at values/nns and/cc attitudes/nns of/in those/dts classes/nns ./.
They/ppss may/md be/be unaware/jj of/in the/at existence/nn of/in lower-class/nn values/nns and/cc consequently/rb fail/vb to/to take/vb them/ppo into/in account/nn ./.
But/cc there/ex is/bez very/ql little/ap frank/jj and/cc conscious/jj espousal/nn of/in the/at interests/nns of/in any/dti one/cd social/jj class/nn by/in the/at people/nns who/wps have/hv the/at power/nn to/to make/vb decisions/nns in/in education/nn ./.
They/ppss think/vb of/in themselves/ppls as/cs trustees/nns for/in the/at entire/jj society/nn and/cc try/vb to/to serve/vb the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.



Attempts/nns-hl to/to-hl influence/vb-hl social/jj-hl structure/nn-hl through/in-hl education/nn-hl 
Educational/jj policy/nn in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl has/hvz as/cs an/at explicit/jj goal/nn the/at maximization/nn of/in economic/jj and/cc cultural/jj opportunity/nn ./.
In/in so/ql far/rb as/cs this/dt goal/nn is/bez achieved/vbn ,/, the/at society/nn becomes/vbz more/ql fluid/jj ,/, artificial/jj barriers/nns to/in social/jj mobility/nn are/ber reduced/vbn ,/, and/cc people/nns at/in the/at lower/jjr end/nn of/in the/at social/jj hierarchy/nn share/vb more/ql fully/rb in/in the/at material/nn and/cc cultural/jj goods/nns of/in society/nn ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at counterbalancing/vbg purpose/nn in/in education/nn which/wdt is/bez to/to pass/vb on/rp the/at advantages/nns of/in the/at parents/nns to/in their/pp$ children/nns ./.
This/dt leads/vbz to/in efforts/nns at/in exclusiveness/nn through/in private/jj schools/nns and/cc to/in the/at maintenance/nn of/in social/jj stratification/nn in/in the/at schools/nns ./.
Both/abx of/in these/dts purposes/nns exist/vb side/nn by/in side/nn without/in much/ap overt/jj conflict/nn under/in present/jj conditions/nns ./.



Maximizing/vbg-hl economic/jj-hl and/cc-hl cultural/jj-hl opportunity/nn-hl 
The/at broad/jj expansion/nn of/in free/jj education/nn results/vbz both/abx in/in raising/vbg the/at average/jj economic/jj and/cc cultural/jj level/nn of/in the/at society/nn and/cc in/in promoting/vbg fluidity/nn within/in the/at social/jj structure/nn ./.
Fifty/cd years/nns ago/rb the/at general/jj raising/nn of/in the/at school-leaving/jj age/nn to/in sixteen/cd was/bedz an/at example/nn of/in this/dt movement/nn ./.
During/in the/at past/ap decade/nn the/at program/nn has/hvz been/ben carried/vbn on/rp through/in expansion/nn of/in free/jj higher/jjr education/nn in/in state/nn universities/nns ,/, state/nn colleges/nns ,/, and/cc community/nn colleges/nns ./.
The/at reaffirmation/nn of/in American/jj faith/nn in/in the/at comprehensive/jj high/jj school/nn ,/, as/cs expressed/vbn in/in the/at Conant/np study/nn ,/, is/bez another/dt indication/nn of/in the/at liveliness/nn of/in the/at ideal/nn of/in maximizing/vbg opportunity/nn through/in the/at equalizing/nn of/in educational/jj opportunity/nn ./.


	The/at recent/jj federal/jj government's/nn$ student-loan/nn program/nn is/bez another/dt step/nn in/in the/at direction/nn of/in making/vbg higher/jjr education/nn more/ql available/jj to/in lower-status/nn youth/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez probably/rb more/ql effective/jj than/cs the/at expanded/vbn scholarship/nn programs/nns of/in the/at past/ap decade/nn ,/, because/cs the/at scholarship/nn programs/nns mainly/rb aided/vbd the/at students/nns with/in the/at best/jjt academic/jj records/nns (/( who/wps were/bed usually/rb middle-class/nn )/) ,/, and/cc these/dts students/nns tended/vbd to/to use/vb the/at scholarship/nn funds/nns to/to go/vb to/in more/ql expensive/jj colleges/nns ./.
Meanwhile/rb ,/, the/at private/jj colleges/nns have/hv increased/vbn their/pp$ tuition/nn rates/nns so/ql much/rb that/cs they/ppss have/hv raised/vbn an/at economic/jj barrier/nn which/wdt dwarfs/vbz their/pp$ scholarship/nn funds/nns ./.
The/at gains/nns in/in educational/jj opportunity/nn during/in the/at past/ap decade/nn have/hv taken/vbn place/nn largely/rb in/in the/at publicly/rb supported/vbn institutions/nns ./.

